New media

New media is a ample appellation in media studies that emerged in the closing allotment of the 20th aeon that refers to on-demand admission to agreeable any time, anywhere, on any agenda device, as able-bodied as alternate user feedback, artistic accord and association accumulation about the media content. Another important affiance of new media is the "democratization" of the creation, publishing, administration and burning of media content. Another aspect of new media is the real-time bearing of new, able content.citation needed

Most technologies declared as "new media" are digital, generally accepting characteristics of getting manipulated, networkable, dense, compressible, and interactive.1 Some examples may be the Internet, websites, computer multimedia, video games, CD-ROMS, and DVDs. New media does not cover television programs, affection films, magazines, books, or paper-based publications – unless they accommodate technologies that accredit agenda interactivity.2 Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia, is an example, accumulation Internet attainable agenda text, images and video with web-links, artistic accord of contributors, alternate acknowledgment of users and accumulation of a actor association of editors and donors for the account of non-community readers. Facebook is an archetype of the amusing media model, in which a lot of users are aswell participants.

History

In the 1960s, access amid accretion and abolitionist art began to abound stronger. It was not until the 1980s that Alan Kay and his co-workers at Xerox PARC began to accord the ability of a claimed computer to the individual, rather than accept a big alignment be in allegation of this. "In the backward 1980s and aboriginal 1990s, however, we assume to attestant a altered affectionate of alongside accord amid amusing changes and computer design. Although causally unrelated, conceptually it makes faculty that the Cold War and the architecture of the Web took abode at absolutely the aforementioned time."3

Until the 1980s media relied primarily aloft book and analog advertisement models, such as those of television and radio. The endure twenty-five years accept apparent the accelerated transformation into media which are predicated aloft the use of agenda technologies, such as the Internet and video games. However, these examples are alone a baby representation of new media. The use of agenda computers has adapted the absolute 'old' media, as appropriate by the appearance of agenda television and online publications. Even acceptable media forms such as the columnist press accept been adapted through the appliance of technologies such as angel abetment software like Adobe Photoshop and desktop publishing tools.

Andrew L. Shapiro (1999) argues that the "emergence of new, agenda technologies signals a potentially abolitionist about-face of who is in ascendancy of information, acquaintance and resources" (Shapiro cited in Croteau and Hoynes 2003: 322). W. Russell Neuman (1991) suggests that whilst the "new media" accept abstruse capabilities to cull in one direction, bread-and-butter and amusing armament cull aback in the adverse direction. According to Neuman, "We are witnessing the change of a accepted commutual arrangement of audio, video, and cyberbanking argument communications that will becloud the acumen amid interpersonal and accumulation advice and amid accessible and clandestine communication" (Neuman cited in Croteau and Hoynes 2003: 322). Neuman argues that New Media will:

Alter the acceptation of geographic distance.

Allow for a huge access in the aggregate of communication.

Accommodate the achievability of accretion the acceleration of communication.

Accommodate opportunities for alternate communication.

Allow forms of advice that were ahead abstracted to overlap and interconnect.

Consequently it has been the altercation of advisers such as Douglas Kellner and James Bohman that new media, and decidedly the Internet, accommodate the abeyant for a autonomous postmodern accessible sphere, in which citizens can participate in able-bodied informed, non-hierarchical agitation pertaining to their amusing structures. Contradicting these absolute appraisals of the abeyant amusing impacts of new media are advisers such as Ed Herman and Robert McChesney who accept appropriate that the alteration to new media has apparent a scattering of able transnational telecommunications corporations who accomplish a akin of all-around access which was ahead unimaginable.

Scholars, such as Lister et al. (2003) and Friedman (2005), accept accent both the absolute and abrogating abeyant and absolute implications of new media technologies, suggesting that some of the aboriginal plan into new media studies was accusable of abstruse determinism – whereby the furnishings of media were bent by the technology themselves, rather than through archetype the circuitous amusing networks which absolute the development, funding, accomplishing and approaching development of any technology.

Definition

Although there are several means that New Media may be described, Lev Manovich, in an addition to The New Media Reader, defines New Media by application eight simple and abridged propositions:4

New Media against Cyberculture – Cyberculture is the assorted amusing phenomena that are associated with the Internet and arrangement communications (blogs, online multi-player gaming), admitting New Media is anxious added with cultural altar and paradigms (digital to analog television, iPhones).

New Media as Computer Technology Acclimated as a Administration Platform – New Media are the cultural altar which use agenda computer technology for administration and exhibition. e.g. (at atomic for now) Internet, Web sites, computer multimedia, Blu-ray disks etc. The botheration with this is that the analogue accept to be revised every few years. The appellation "new media" will not be "new" anymore, as a lot of forms of ability will be broadcast through computers.

New Media as Agenda Abstracts Controlled by Software – The accent of New Media is based on the acceptance that, in fact, all cultural altar that await on agenda representation and computer-based supply do allotment a amount of accepted qualities. New media is bargain to agenda abstracts that can be manipulated by software as any added data. Now media operations can actualize several versions of the aforementioned object. An archetype is an angel stored as cast abstracts which can be manipulated and adapted according to the added algorithms implemented, such as blush inversion, gray-scaling, sharpening, rasterizing, etc.

New Media as the Mix Amid Existing Cultural Conventions and the Conventions of Software – "New Media today can be accepted as the mix amid earlier cultural conventions for abstracts representation, access, and abetment and newer conventions of abstracts representation, access, and manipulation. The "old" abstracts are representations of beheld absoluteness and animal experience, and the "new" abstracts is after data. The computer is kept out of the key "creative" decisions, and is delegated to the position of a technician." e.g. In film, software is acclimated in some areas of production, in others are created application computer animation.

New Media as the Aesthetics that Accompanies the Early Stage of Every New Beat Media and Communication Technology – "While brainy tropes absolutely assume to be reappearing rather regularly, abounding artful strategies may reappear two or three times ... In adjustment for this access to be absolutely advantageous it would be bereft to artlessly name the strategies and tropes and to almanac the moments of their appearance; instead, we would accept to advance a abundant added absolute assay which would associate the history of technology with social, political, and economical histories or the beat period."

New Media as Faster Beheading of Algorithms Ahead Accomplished Manually or through Added Technologies – Computers are a huge speed-up of what were ahead chiral techniques. e.g. calculators. "Dramatically dispatch up the beheading makes accessible ahead non-existent representational technique." This aswell makes accessible of abounding new forms of media art such as alternate multimedia and video games. "On one level, a beat agenda computer is just a faster calculator, we should not avoid its added identity: that of a cybernetic ascendancy device."

New Media as the Encoding of Modernist Avant-Garde; New Media as Metamedia – Manovich declares that the 1920s are added accordant to New Media than any added time period. Meta-media coincides with postmodernism in that they both rework old plan rather than actualize new work. New media beat "is about new means of accessing and manipulating information" (e.g. hypermedia, databases, seek engines, etc.). Meta-media is an archetype of how abundance can change into superior as in new media technology and abetment techniques can "recode modernist aesthetics into a actual altered postmodern aesthetics."

New Media as Parallel Articulation of Agnate Ideas in Post-WWII Art and Beat Computing – Post WWII Art or "combinatorics" involves creating images by systematically alteration a individual parameter. This leads to the conception or appreciably agnate images and spatial structures. "This illustrates that algorithms, this capital allotment of new media, do not depend on technology, but can be accomplished by humans."

Globalization and new media

The acceleration of new media has added advice amid humans all over the apple and the Internet. It has accustomed humans to accurate themselves through blogs, websites, pictures, and added user-generated media.

Flew (2002) declared that as a aftereffect of the change of new media technologies, globalization occurs. Globalization is about declared as "more than amplification of activities above the boundaries of accurate nation states".5 Globalization shortens the ambit amid humans all over the apple by the cyberbanking advice (Carely 1992 in Flew 2002) and Cairncross (1998) expresses this abundant development as the "death of distance". New media "radically breach the affiliation amid concrete abode and amusing place, authoritative concrete area abundant beneath cogent for our amusing relationships" (Croteau and Hoynes 2003: 311).

However, the changes in the new media ambiance actualize a alternation of tensions in the abstraction of "public sphere".6 According to Ingrid Volkmer, "public sphere" is authentic as a action through which accessible advice becomes restructured and partly disembedded from civic political and cultural institutions. This trend of the globalized accessible apple is not alone as a bounded amplification anatomy a nation to worldwide, but aswell changes the accord amid the public, the media and accompaniment (Volkmer, 1999:123).7

"Virtual communities" are getting accustomed online and transcend bounded boundaries, eliminating amusing restrictions. Howard Rheingold (2000) describes these globalised societies as self-defined networks, which resemble what we do in absolute life. "People in basic communities use words on screens to barter pleasantries and argue, appoint in bookish discourse, conduct commerce, accomplish plans, brainstorm, gossip, feud, abatement in love, actualize a little top art and a lot of abandoned talk" (Rheingold cited in Slevin 2000: 91). For Sherry Turkle "making the computer into a additional self, award a body in the machine, can acting for animal relationships" (Holmes 2005: 184). New media has the adeptness to affix agreeing others worldwide.

While this angle suggests that the technology drives – and accordingly is a free agency – in the action of globalization, arguments involving abstruse determinism are about frowned aloft by boilerplate media studies.8910 Instead academics focus on the complication of processes by which technology is funded, researched and produced, basic a acknowledgment bend if the technologies are acclimated and generally adapted by their users, which again feeds into the action of allegorical their approaching development.

While commentators such as Castells11 accept a "soft determinism"12 whereby they argue that "Technology does not actuate society. Nor does association Software the advance of abstruse change, back abounding factors, including alone adroitness and entrpreneurialism, arbitrate in the action of accurate discovery, abstruse addition and amusing applications, so the final aftereffect depends on a circuitous arrangement of interaction. Indeed the bind of abstruse determinism is apparently a apocryphal problem, back technology is association and association cannot be accepted after its abstruse tools." (Castells 1996:5) This, however, is still audible from advertence that civic changes are instigated by abstruse development, which recalls the theses of Marshall McLuhan.1314

Manovich15 and Castells11 accept argued that admitting accumulation media "corresponded to the argumentation of automated accumulation society, which ethics acquiescence over individuality," (Manovich 2001:41) new media follows the argumentation of the postindustrial or globalized association whereby "every aborigine can assemble her own custom affairs and baddest her credo from a ample amount of choices. Rather than blame the aforementioned altar to a accumulation audience, business now tries to ambition anniversary alone separately." (Manovich 2001:42).

As tool for social change

Social movement media has a affluent and acclaimed history (see Agitprop) that has afflicted at a accelerated amount back New Media became broadly acclimated (Chris Atton).16 The Zapatista Army of National Liberation of Chiapas, Mexico were the aboriginal above movement to accomplish broadly accustomed and able use of New Media for communiques and acclimation in 1994.17 Back then, New Media has been acclimated abundantly by amusing movements to educate, organize, allotment cultural articles of movements, communicate, affiliation build, and more. The WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 beef activity was addition battleground in the use of New Media as a apparatus for amusing change. The WTO protests acclimated media to adapt the aboriginal action, acquaint with and brainwash participants, and was acclimated as an addition media source.18 The Indymedia movement aswell developed out of this action, and has been a abundant apparatus in the democratization of information, which is addition broadly discussed aspect of new media movement.19 Some advisers even appearance this democratization as an adumbration of the conception of a "radical, socio-technical archetype to claiming the dominant, neoliberal and technologically determinist archetypal of advice and advice technologies."20 A beneath abolitionist appearance forth these aforementioned curve is that humans are demography advantage of the Internet to aftermath a grassroots globalization, one that is anti-neoliberal and centered on humans rather than the breeze of capital.21 Of course, some are aswell agnostic of the role of New Media in Amusing Movements. Abounding advisers point out diff admission to new media as a albatross to broad-based movements, sometimes even afflictive some aural a movement.22 Others are agnostic about how autonomous or advantageous it absolutely is for amusing movements, even for those with access.23 There are aswell abounding New Media apparatus that activists adduce as accoutrement for change that accept not been broadly discussed as such by academics.

New Media has aswell begin a use with beneath abolitionist amusing movements such as the Free Hugs Campaign. Using websites, blogs, and online videos to authenticate the capability of the movement itself. Forth with this archetype the use of top aggregate blogs has accustomed abundant angle and practices to be added boundless and accretion added accessible attention. Addition archetype is the on-going Free Tibet Campaign, which has been apparent on abundant websites as able-bodied as accepting a slight amalgamation with the bandage Gorillaz in their Gorillaz Bitez blow featuring the advance accompanist 2D sitting with protesters at a Free Tibet protest. Addition amusing change apparent advancing from New Media is trends in appearance and the actualization of subcultures such as Text Speak, Cyberpunk, and assorted others.

National security

New Media has aswell afresh become of absorption to the all-around espionage association as it is calmly attainable electronically in database architecture and can accordingly be bound retrieved and about-face engineered by civic governments. Particularly of absorption to the espionage association are Facebook and Twitter, two sites area individuals advisedly admit claimed advice that can again be sifted through and archived for the automated conception of dossiers on both humans of absorption and the boilerplate citizen.24

Interactivity and new media

Interactivity has become a appellation for a amount of new media use options evolving from the accelerated broadcasting of Internet admission points, the digitalization of media, and media convergence. In 1984, Rice authentic new media as advice technologies that accredit or facilitate user-to-user interactivity and interactivity amid user and information.25 Such a analogue replaces the "one-to-many" archetypal of acceptable accumulation advice with the achievability of a "many-to-many" web of communication. Any alone with the adapted technology can now aftermath his or her online media and cover images, text, and complete about whatever he or she chooses.26 Appropriately the aggregation of new methods of advice with new technologies accouterment the archetypal of accumulation communication, and radically reshapes the means we collaborate and acquaint with one another. in "What is new media?" Vin Crosbie27 (2002) declared three altered kinds of advice media. He saw Interpersonal media as "one to one", Accumulation media as "one to many", and assuredly New Media as Individuation Media or "many to many".

When we anticipate of interactivity and its meaning, we accept that it is alone arresting in the communicative dynamics of individuals who are face-to-face. This brake of assessment does not acquiesce us to see its actuality in advised advice forums. Interactivity is present in some programming work, such as video games. It's aswell applicable in the operation of acceptable media. In the mid 1990s, filmmakers started application bargain agenda cameras to actualize films. It was aswell the time if affective angel technology had developed, which was able to be beheld on computer desktops in abounding motion. This development of new media technology was a new adjustment for artists to allotment their plan and collaborate with the big world. Other settings of interactivity cover radio and television allocution shows, belletrist to the editor, adviser accord in such programs, and computer and abstruse programming.28 Alternate new media has become a accurate account to every one because humans can accurate their artwork in added than one way with the technology that we accept today and there is no best a absolute to what we can do with our creativity.

Interactivity can be advised a axial abstraction in compassionate new media, but altered media forms acquire altered degrees of interactivity,29 and some forms of digitized and converged media are not in actuality alternate at all. Tony Feldman30 considers agenda agenda television as an archetype of a new media technology that uses agenda compression to badly access the amount of television channels that can be delivered, and which changes the attributes of what can be offered through the service, but does not transform the acquaintance of television from the user's point of view, and appropriately lacks a added absolutely alternate dimension. It charcoal the case that interactivity is not an inherent appropriate of all new media technologies, clashing digitization and convergence.

Terry Flew (2005) argues that "the all-around alternate amateur industry is ample and growing, and is at the beginning of abounding of the a lot of cogent innovations in new media" (Flew 2005: 101). Interactivity is arresting in these online video amateur such as Apple of Warcraft, The Sims Online and Second Life. These games, which are developments of "new media," acquiesce for users to authorize relationships and acquaintance a faculty of acceptance that transcends acceptable banausic and spatial boundaries (such as if gamers logging in from altered locations of the apple interact). These amateur can be acclimated as an escape or to act out a adapted life. Will Wright, architect of The Sims, "is absorbed by the way gamers accept become so absorbed to his invention-with some even active their lives through it".31 New media accept created basic realities that are acceptable basic extensions of the apple we reside in. With the conception of Second Activity and Active Worlds afore it, humans accept even added ascendancy over this basic world, a apple area annihilation that a actor can anticipate of can become a reality.32

New Media changes continuously because it is consistently adapted and redefined by the alternation amid users, arising technologies, cultural changes, etc.

Industry

The new media industry shares an accessible affiliation with abounding bazaar segments in areas such as software/video bold design, television, radio, and decidedly movies, commercial and marketing, through which industry seeks to accretion from the advantages of two-way chat with consumers primarily through the Internet. The commercial industry has capitalized on the admeasurement of new media with ample agencies active multi-million dollar alternate commercial subsidiaries. Alternate websites and kiosks accept become popular. In a amount of cases commercial agencies accept aswell set up new capacity to abstraction new media. Public relations firms are aswell demography advantage of the opportunities in new media through alternate PR practices. Alternate PR practices cover the use of amusing media33 to ability a accumulation admirers of online amusing arrangement users.

Youth and new media

Young humans tethered to their corpuscle phones to argument and admission amusing networking sites on the street, on transportation, in academy and at home are accepted scenes in the United States. Based on nationally adumbrative data, a Kaiser Family Foundation Study conducted in five-year intervals in 1998-1999, 2003-2004 and 2008-2009 begin that with technology acceptance about 24-hour media access, the bulk of time adolescent humans absorb with ball media has risen dramatically, abnormally a part of Black and Hispanic youth.34 Today, 8-18 year-olds allot an boilerplate of 7 hours and 38 account (7:38) to application ball media in a archetypal day (more than 53 hours a week) – about the aforementioned bulk a lot of adults absorb at plan per day. Since abundant of that time is spent 'media multitasking' (using added than one average at a time), they in fact administer to absorb a absolute of 10 hours and 45 account account of media agreeable in those 7½ hours per day.1 According to the Pew Internet & American Life Project, 96% of 18-29 year olds and three-quarters (75%) of adolescence now own a corpuscle phone, 88% of whom argument and 73% of active American adolescence use amusing networking websites, a cogent access from antecedent years.35